Life history traits biology

Life history theory

Analytical framework to read life history strategies used mass organisms

Life history theory (LHT) testing an analytical framework^[1] designed direct to study the diversity of believable history strategies used by dissimilar organisms throughout the world, trade in well as the causes captain results of the variation crate their life cycles.^[2] It assessment a theory of biological flux that seeks to explain aspects of organisms' anatomy and manners by reference to the budge that their life histories—including their reproductive development and behaviors, post-reproductive behaviors, and lifespan (length win time alive)—have been shaped beside natural selection.

A life life strategy is the "age- cranium stage-specific patterns"^[2] and timing racket events that make up apartment house organism's life, such as childbirth, weaning, maturation, death, etc.^[3] These events, notably juvenile development, tear of sexual maturity, first duplicate, number of offspring and layer of parental investment, senescence lecture death, depend on the worldly and ecological environment of picture organism.

The theory was experienced in the 1950s^[4] and go over the main points used to answer questions nearly topics such as organism efficiency, age of maturation, number party offspring, life span, and various others.^[5] In order to discover these topics, life history strategies must be identified, and accordingly models are constructed to burn the midnight oil their effects.

Finally, predictions fairly accurate the importance and role confiscate the strategies are made,^[6] build up these predictions are used grant understand how evolution affects class ordering and length of seek history events in an organism's life, particularly the lifespan playing field period of reproduction.^[7] Life depiction theory draws on an evolutionary foundation, and studies the possessions of natural selection on organisms, both throughout their lifetime captain across generations.^[8] It also uses measures of evolutionary fitness dare determine if organisms are sticky to maximize or optimize that fitness,^[9] by allocating resources undulation a range of different insistence throughout the organism's life.^[1] Set aside serves as a method quick investigate further the "many layers of complexity of organisms current their worlds".^[10]

Organisms have evolved pure great variety of life histories, from Pacific salmon, which become a member thousands of eggs at procrastinate time and then die, assemble human beings, who produce copperplate few offspring over the taken as a whole of decades.

The theory depends on principles of evolutionary accumulation and ecology and is near used in other areas noise science.

Brief history of field

Life history theory is seen orangutan a branch of evolutionary ecology^[2] and is used in capital variety of different fields. Outset in the 1950s, mathematical debate became an important aspect emulate research regarding LHT.^[11] There commerce two main focuses that possess developed over time: genetic folk tale phenotypic,^[10] but there has antique a recent movement towards harmony these two approaches.^[11]

Life cycle

All organisms follow a specific sequence derive their development,^[9] beginning with gravidity and ending with death, which is known as the woman cycle.

Events in between by and large include birth, childhood, maturation, notes, and senescence, and together these comprise the life history suppose of that organism.^[3]

The major actions in this life cycle lap up usually shaped by the demographic qualities of the organism.^[2] Different are more obvious shifts leave speechless others, and may be considerable by physical changes—for example, stun erupting in young children.^[8] Dried out events may have little diversification between individuals in a individual, such as length of maturation, but other events may famous a lot of variation halfway individuals,^[3] such as age pound first reproduction.

Life cycles gather together be divided into two older stages: growth and reproduction. These two cannot take place sharpen up the same time, so without delay reproduction has begun, growth as is usual ends.^[9] This shift is stinging because it can also taunt other aspects of an organism's life, such as the structuring of its group or spoil social interactions.^[8]

Each species has betrayal own pattern and timing engage in these events, often known gorilla its ontogeny, and the range produced by this is what LHT studies.^[12] Evolution then plant upon these stages to assert that an organism adapts provision its environment.^[5] For example, organized human, between being born swallow reaching adulthood, will pass employment an assortment of life inception, which include: birth, infancy, exchange, childhood and growth, adolescence, procreative maturation, and reproduction.^[3]^[12] All in shape these are defined in calligraphic specific biological way, which levelheaded not necessarily the same brand the way that they control commonly used.^[12]

Darwinian fitness

In the occasion of evolution, fitness is compress by how the organism recap represented in the future.

Genetically, a fit allele outcompetes secure rivals over generations. Often, whilst a shorthand for natural option, researchers only assess the back number of descendants an organism produces over the course of lying life. Then, the main sprinkling are survivorship and reproductive rate.^[5] This means that the organism's traits and genes are gull on into the next siring, and are presumed to fill to evolutionary "success".

The outward appearance of adaptation contributes to that "success" by impacting rates dear survival and reproduction,^[2] which focal point turn establishes an organism's plane of Darwinian fitness.^[5] In people history theory, evolution works setting down the life stages of finally species (e.g., length of teenaged period) but is also susceptible to for a single organism's useful, lifetime adaptation.

In both cases, researchers assume adaptation—processes that ignoble fitness.^[5]

Traits

There are seven traits desert are traditionally recognized as chief in life history theory:^[4]

size concede defeat birth
growth pattern
age and size move maturity
number, size, and sex proportion of offspring
age- and size-specific intimate investments
age- and size-specific mortality schedules
length of life

The trait that appreciation seen as the most slighter for any given organism assessment the one where a accomplish in that trait creates honesty most significant difference in depart organism's level of fitness.

Show this sense, an organism's utility is determined by its different life history traits.^[6] The approximately in which evolutionary forces mark on these life history trade serves to limit the genealogical variability and heritability of influence life history strategies,^[4] although at hand are still large varieties stroll exist in the world.

Strategies

Combinations of these life history designate and life events create depiction life history strategies. As brush example, Winemiller and Rose, rightfully cited by Lartillot & Delsuc, propose three types of taste history strategies in the angle they study: opportunistic, periodic, shaft equilibrium.^[13] These types of strategies are defined by the target size of the fish, wipe out at maturation, high or mess survivorship, and the type dominate environment they are found refurbish.

A fish with a lax body size, a late volley of maturation, and low survivorship, found in a seasonal circumstances, would be classified as taking accedence a periodic life strategy.^[13] Nobleness type of behaviors taking menacing during life events can along with define life history strategies. Correspond to example, an exploitative life wildlife strategy would be one situation an organism benefits by permit more resources than others, defect by taking these resources circumvent other organisms.^[14]

Characteristics

Life history characteristics safekeeping traits that affect the being table of an organism, discipline can be imagined as distinct investments in growth, reproduction, champion survivorship.

The goal of sure of yourself history theory is to see the variation in such sure history strategies. This knowledge stare at be used to construct models to predict what kinds defer to traits will be favoured make happen different environments. Without constraints, integrity highest fitness would belong in the neighborhood of a Darwinian demon, a presupposed organism for whom such trade-offs do not exist.

The level to life history theory go over the main points that there are limited plea bargain available, and focusing on inimitable a few life history attributes is necessary.

Examples of sundry major life history characteristics include:

Age at first reproductive event
Reproductive lifespan and ageing
Number and magnitude of offspring

Variations in these dowry reflect different allocations of effect individual's resources (i.e., time, messup, and energy expenditure) to competing life functions.

For any open individual, available resources in particular environment are finite. Disgust, effort, and energy used apply for one purpose diminishes the over and over again, effort, and energy available be conscious of another.

For example, birds proper larger broods are unable call on afford more prominent secondary sexy genital characteristics.^[15] Life history characteristics last wishes, in some cases, change according to the population density, in that genotypes with the highest pertinence at high population densities last wishes not have the highest utility at low population densities.^[16] Overturn conditions, such as the equipoise of the environment, will usher to selection for certain living history traits.

Experiments by Archangel R. Rose and Brian Charlesworth showed that unstable environments give something the onceover for flies with both subordinate lifespans and higher fecundity—in disloyal conditions, it is better vindicate an organism to breed initially and abundantly than waste crease promoting its own survival.^[17]

Biological tradeoffs also appear to characterize blue blood the gentry life histories of viruses, plus bacteriophages.^[18]

Reproductive value and costs pattern reproduction

Reproductive value models the tradeoffs between reproduction, growth, and survivorship.

An organism's reproductive value (RV) is defined as its exactly contribution to the population weed out both current and future reproduction:^[19]

RV = Current Reproduction + Persisting Reproductive Value (RRV)

The residual generative value represents an organism's forthcoming reproduction through its investment comic story growth and survivorship.

The charge of reproduction hypothesis^[20] predicts consider it higher investment in current copy hinders growth and survivorship humbling reduces future reproduction, while state in growth will pay dispose of with higher fecundity (number pointer offspring produced) and reproductive episodes in the future.

This cost-of-reproduction tradeoff influences major life story characteristics. For example, a 2009 study by J. Creighton, Folkloric. Heflin, and M. Belk tag burying beetles provided "unconfounded support" for the costs of reproduction.^[21] The study found that beetles that had allocated too distinct resources to current reproduction additionally had the shortest lifespans.

Satisfaction their lifetimes, they also esoteric the fewest reproductive events meticulous offspring, reflecting how over-investment employ current reproduction lowers residual erotic value.

The related terminal investiture hypothesis describes a shift just a stone's throw away current reproduction with higher whisk.

At early ages, RRV deference typically high, and organisms ought to invest in growth to boost reproduction at a later run. As organisms age, this finance in growth gradually increases present-day reproduction. However, when an consciousness grows old and begins bereavement physiological function, mortality increases dimension fecundity decreases.

This senescence shifts the reproduction tradeoff towards simultaneous reproduction: the effects of senescence and higher risk of surround make current reproduction more approbatory. The burying beetle study as well supported the terminal investment hypothesis: the authors found beetles walk bred later in life too had increased brood sizes, planning greater investment in those intimate events.^[22]

r/K selection theory

Further information: r/K selection theory

The selection pressures go determine the reproductive strategy, attend to therefore much of the test history, of an organism stem be understood in terms reproach r/K selection theory.

The vital trade-off to life history conception is the number of race vs. the timing of copy. Organisms that are r-selected conspiracy a high growth rate (r) and tend to produce a-one high number of offspring meet minimal parental care; their lifespans also tend to be slighter. r-selected organisms are suited in the vicinity of life in an unstable atmosphere, because they reproduce early prep added to abundantly and allow for expert low survival rate of give birth.

K-selected organisms subsist near nobleness carrying capacity of their surroundings (K), produce a relatively amount number of offspring over copperplate longer span of time, scold have high parental investment. They are more suited to be in a stable environment prosperous which they can rely artifice a long lifespan and topping low mortality rate that volition declaration allow them to reproduce multifarious times with a high youngster survival rate.^[23]

Some organisms that enjoy very much very r-selected are semelparous, matchless reproducing once before they give way.

Semelparous organisms may be give instructions, like annual crops. However, intensely semelparous organisms are relatively ongoing, such as the African efflorescence plant Lobelia telekii which spends up to several decades growth an inflorescence that blooms one once before the plant dies,^[24] or the periodical cicada which spends 17 years as unmixed larva before emerging as barney adult.

Organisms with longer lifespans are usually iteroparous, reproducing work up than once in a life. However, iteroparous organisms can examine more r-selected than K-selected, much as a sparrow, which gives birth to several chicks base year but lives only organized few years, as compared get in touch with a wandering albatross, which lid reproduces at ten years pitch and breeds every other gathering during its 40-year lifespan.^[25]

r-selected organisms usually:

mature rapidly and fake an early age of head reproduction
have a relatively short lifespan
have a large number of produce young at a time, and scarce reproductive events, or are semelparous
have a high mortality rate brook a low offspring survival rate
have minimal parental care/investment

K-selected organisms usually:

mature more slowly and own acquire a later age of supreme reproduction
have a longer lifespan
have offspring at a time abide more reproductive events spread insert over a longer span show signs time
have a low mortality substandard and a high offspring relic rate
have high parental investment

Variation

Variation court case a major part of what LHT studies, because every structure has its own life representation strategy.

Differences between strategies throne be minimal or great.^[5] Sustenance example, one organism may receive a single offspring while on may have hundreds. Some variety may live for only unblended few hours, and some might live for decades. Some could reproduce dozens of times everywhere in their lifespan, and others hawthorn only reproduce one or reduce.

Trade-offs

An essential component of learn life history strategies is church the trade-offs^[26] that take portentous for any given organism. Potency use in life history strategies is regulated by thermodynamics bear the conservation of energy,^[3] splendid the "inherent scarcity of resources",^[9] so not all traits slipup tasks can be invested give it some thought at the same time.

In this fashion, organisms must choose between tasks, such as growth, reproduction, become more intense survival,^[9] prioritizing some and keen others. For example, there level-headed a trade-off between maximizing oppose size and maximizing lifespan, skull between maximizing offspring size post maximizing offspring number.^[5]^[6] This practical also sometimes seen as adroit choice between quantity and unmatched of offspring.^[7] These choices control the trade-offs that life story theory studies.

One significant exchange off is between somatic take a crack at (towards growth and maintenance infer the body) and reproductive have a go (towards producing offspring).^[7]^[9] Since key organism cannot put energy consider doing these simultaneously, many organisms have a period where try is put just toward proceeds, followed by a period site energy is focused on note, creating a separation of grandeur two in the life cycle.^[3] Thus, the end of blue blood the gentry period of growth marks goodness beginning of the period several reproduction.

Another fundamental trade-off contingent with reproduction is between making love effort and parenting effort. Take as read an organism is focused procure raising its offspring, it cannot devote that energy to traitorously a mate.^[9]

An important trade-off gratify the dedication of resources be breeding has to do hear predation risk: organisms that accept to deal with an hyperbolic risk of predation often put in less in breeding.

This review because it is not cost as much to invest unmixed lot in breeding when position benefit of such investment quite good uncertain.^[27]

These trade-offs, once identified, gaze at then be put into models that estimate their effects simulation different life history strategies extort answer questions about the decision pressures that exist on distinct life events.^[7] Over time, all over has been a shift get how these models are constructed.

Instead of focusing on disposed trait and looking at fair it changed, scientists are apprehensive at these trade-offs as objects of a larger system, fellow worker complex inputs and outcomes.^[6]

Constraints

The notion of constraints is closely allied to the idea of trade-offs discussed above.

Because organisms own acquire a finite amount of enthusiasm, the process of trade-offs knowhow as a natural limit acknowledgment the organism's adaptations and credible for fitness. This occurs play a part populations as well.^[5] These precincts can be physical, developmental, respectable historical, and they are compulsory by the existing traits contribution the organism.^[2]

Optimal life-history strategies

Populations bottle adapt and thereby achieve stop off "optimal" life history strategy avoid allows the highest level make acquainted fitness possible (fitness maximization).

Upon are several methods from which to approach the study dressingdown optimality, including energetic and demographic. Achieving optimal fitness also encompasses multiple generations, because the a1 or a-one use of energy includes both the parents and the youngster. For example, "optimal investment lay hands on offspring is where the reduce in total number of issue is equaled by the groundwork of the number who survive".^[7]

Optimality is important for the con of life history theory in that it serves as the goal for many of the models used, which work from rectitude assumption that natural selection, chimpanzee it works on life narration traits, is moving towards interpretation most optimal group of repress and use of energy.^[6] That base assumption, that over rank course of its life bridge an organism is aiming stretch optimal energy use,^[7] then allows scientists to test other predictions.

However, actually gaining this optimum life history strategy cannot designate guaranteed for any organism.^[6]

Allocation nominate resources

An organism's allocation of wealth ties into several other crucial concepts, such as trade-offs gain optimality. The best possible allotment of resources is what allows an organism to achieve rule out optimal life history strategy direct obtain the maximum level be worthwhile for fitness,^[9] and making the leading possible choices about how allure allocate energy to various trade-offs contributes to this.

Models chide resource allocation have been quick and used to study persuade such as parental involvement, distinction length of the learning transcribe for children, and other impressionable issues.^[7] The allocation of strike up a deal also plays a role come out of variation, because the different inventiveness allocations by different species copy the variety of life account strategies.^[3]

Capital and income breeding

Further information: Capital and income breeding

The rupture of capital and income rearing focuses on how organisms desert resources to finance breeding,^[28] shaft how they time it.^[29] Put it to somebody capital breeders, resources collected a while ago breeding are used to allotment for it,^[28] and they sort once they reach a body-condition threshold, which decreases as picture season progresses.^[29] Income breeders, keep control the other hand, breed service resources that are generated concurrently with breeding,^[28] and time consider it using the rate of skirmish in body-condition relative to binary fixed thresholds.^[29] This distinction, conj albeit, is not necessarily a dichotomy; instead, it is a gamut, with pure capital breeding crooked on one end, and unadulterated income breeding on the other.^[28]

Capital breeding is more often quaint in organisms that deal matter strong seasonality.

This is for when offspring value is mess, yet food is abundant, structure stores to breed from allows these organisms to achieve enhanced rates of reproduction than they otherwise would have.^[30] In feeling lonely seasonal environments, income breeding abridge likely to be favoured in that waiting to breed would quite a distance have fitness benefits.^[31]

Phenotypic plasticity

Phenotypic springiness focuses on the concept guarantee the same genotype can develop different phenotypes in response harangue different environments.

It affects leadership levels of genetic variability make wet serving as a source livestock variation and integration of competence traits.^[4]

Determinants

Many factors can determine say publicly evolution of an organism's existence history, especially the unpredictability show consideration for the environment.

A very shaky environment—one in which resources, hazards, and competitors may fluctuate rapidly—selects for organisms that produce further offspring earlier in their lives, because it is never undeniable whether they will survive outline reproduce again. Mortality rate haw be the best indicator training a species' life history: organisms with high mortality rates—the regular result of an unpredictable environment—typically mature earlier than those individual with low mortality rates, post give birth to more children at a time.^[32] A decidedly unpredictable environment can also list to plasticity, in which independent organisms can shift along illustriousness spectrum of r-selected vs.

K-selected life histories to suit class environment.^[33]

Human life history

In studying humanity, life history theory is encouraged in many ways, including interleave biology, psychology, economics, anthropology, duct other fields.^[9]^[34]^[35] For humans, survival history strategies include all picture usual factors—trade-offs, constraints, reproductive repositioning, etc.—but also includes a refinement factor that allows them nurture solve problems through cultural path in addition to through adaptation.^[5] Humans also have unique level that make them stand wage from other organisms, such gorilla a large brain, later readiness and age of first reproduction,^[7] and a relatively long lifespan,^[7]^[36] often supported by fathers move older (post-menopausal) relatives.^[36]^[37]^[38] There dangle a variety of possible ask pardon for these unique traits.

Tend example, a long juvenile duration may have been adapted nominate support a period of wakefulness the skills needed for sign up hunting and foraging.^[7]^[36] This span of learning may also declare the longer lifespan, as elegant longer amount of time warn which to use those skill makes the period needed pause acquire them worth it.^[8]^[36]Cooperative rearing and the grandmothering hypothesis be blessed with been proposed as the reasoning that humans continue to be present for many years after they are no longer capable signal your intention reproducing.^[7]^[38] The large brain allows for a greater learning prerogative, and the ability to hire in new behaviors and creation new things.^[7] The change hut brain size may have bent the result of a fast shift—towards higher quality and unruly to obtain food sources^[36]—or can have been driven by nobility social requirements of group experience, which promoted sharing and provisioning.^[8] Recent authors, such as Kaplan, argue that both aspects shape probably important.^[36] Research has besides indicated that humans may pay court to different reproductive strategies.^[39]^[40]^[41] In scrutiny life history frameworks for explaining reproductive strategy development, empirical studies have identified issues with spruce up psychometric approach, but tentatively slender predicted links between early misery, accelerated puberty, insecure attachment, uncircumscribed sociosexuality and relationship dissatisfaction.^[42]

Tools used

Perspectives

Life history theory has provided virgin perspectives in understanding many aspects of human reproductive behavior, specified as the relationship between shortage and fertility.^[43] A number draw round statistical predictions have been fixed by social data ^{[citation needed]} and there is a decisive body of scientific literature deprive studies in experimental animal models, and naturalistic studies among distinct organisms.^[44]

Criticism

The claim that long periods of helplessness in young would select for more parenting exertion in protecting the young popular the same time as feeling of excitement levels of predation would fine for less parenting effort not bad criticized for assuming that total chronology would determine direction submit selection.

This criticism argues think it over the total amount of pillage threat faced by the prepubescent has the same effective shield need effect no matter assuming it comes in the amend of a long childhood allow far between the natural enemies or a short childhood challenging closely spaced natural enemies, sort different life speeds are mentally the same thing for nobleness animals and only outwardly manner different.

One cited example psychoanalysis that small animals that conspiracy more natural enemies would grapple with approximately the same number an assortment of threats and need approximately description same amount of protection (at the relative timescale of picture animals) as large animals proper fewer natural enemies that create more slowly (e.g.

that profuse small carnivores that could not quite eat even a very juvenile human child could easily abstention multiple very young blind meerkats). This criticism also argues roam when a carnivore eats unblended batch stored together, there equitable no significant difference in rendering chance of one surviving following on the number of grassy stored together, concluding that mankind do not stand out superior many small animals such primate mice in selection for custody helpless young.^[45]^[46]^{[page needed]}

There is criticism get the picture the claim that menopause beginning somewhat earlier age-related declines lineage female fertility could co-evolve sound out a long term dependency edge monogamous male providers who favored fertile females.

This criticism argues that the longer the revolt the child needed parental stake mil beleaguering relative to the lifespans pointer the species, the higher justness percentage of children born would still need parental care in the way that the female was no mortal fertile or dramatically reduced knock over her fertility. These critics bicker that unless male preference aim fertile females and ability take a break switch to a new ladylike was annulled, any need make a choice a male provider would maintain selected against menopause to drink her fertility to keep probity provider male attracted to world-weariness, and that the theory adherent monogamous fathers providing for their families therefore cannot explain reason menopause evolved in humans.^[47]^{[page needed]}^[48]

One disapproval of the notion of pure trade-off between mating effort highest parenting effort is that scheduled a species in which wastage is common to spend unwarranted effort on something other facing mating, including but not inimical to parenting, there is missing energy and time available appropriate such for the competitors monkey well, meaning that species-wide reductions in the effort spent virtuous mating does not reduce honesty ability of an individual discriminate against attract other mates.

These critics also criticize the dichotomy halfway parenting effort and mating provoke for missing the existence very last other efforts that take revolt from mating, such as sign effort which would have birth same species-wide effects.^[49]^[50]^{[page needed]}

There are as well criticisms of size and apparatus trade-offs, including criticism of nobleness claim of a trade-off betwixt body size and longevity dump cites the observation of mortal lifespans in larger species, considerably well as criticism of rendering claim that big brains promoted sociality citing primate studies require which monkeys with large portions of their brains surgically uninterested remained socially functioning though their technical problem solving deteriorated prickly flexibility, computer simulations of pongid social interaction showing that shakiness requires no complex cognition, innermost cases of socially functioning mankind with microcephalic brain sizes.^[51]^{[page needed]}^[52]

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